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The first demonstrations took place in central Tunisia in December , catalyzed by the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi , a 26-year-old street vendor protesting his treatment by local officials. A protest movement, dubbed the &#;Jasmine Revolution&#; in the media, quickly spread through the country. The Tunisian government attempted to end the unrest by using violence against street demonstrations and by offering political and economic concessions . However, protests soon overwhelmed the country&#;s security forces, compelling Pres. Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali to step down and flee the country on January 14, . In October , Tunisians participated in a free election to choose members of a council tasked with drafting a new constitution. A democratically chosen president and prime minister took office in December , and a new constitution was promulgated in January . In October&#;November , Tunisia became the first country of the Arab Spring protests to undergo a peaceful transfer of power from one democratically elected government to another.
Inspired by Ben Ali&#;s ouster in Tunisia, similar protests were quickly organized among young Egyptians through social media (see Wael Ghonim ), bringing out massive crowds across Egypt on January 25. The Egyptian government also tried and failed to control protests by offering concessions while cracking down violently against protesters. After several days of massive demonstrations and clashes between protesters and security forces in Cairo and around the country, a turning point came at the end of the month when the Egyptian army announced that it would refuse to use force against protesters calling for the removal of Pres. Hosni Mubarak . Having lost the support of the military, Mubarak left office on February 11 after nearly 30 years, ceding power to a council of senior military officers. The military enjoyed high public approval in the interim before a new government, but its apparent prioritization of stability over democratic transition at times dampened optimism.
Encouraged by protesters&#; rapid successes in Tunisia and Egypt, protest movements took hold in Yemen, Bahrain, Libya, and Syria in late January, February, and March . Unlike in Tunisia and Egypt, however, the outpouring of popular discontent in these countries led to bloody&#;and often protracted&#;struggles between opposition groups and ruling regimes.
Yemeni demonstrators in Sanaa calling for an end to the government of Pres. Ali Abdullah Saleh in January .
In Yemen, where the first protests appeared in late January , Pres. Ali Abdullah Saleh&#;s base of support was damaged when a number of the country&#;s most powerful tribal and military leaders aligned themselves with the pro-democracy protesters calling for him to step down. When negotiations to remove Saleh from power failed, loyalist and opposition fighters clashed in Sanaa. Saleh left Yemen in June to receive medical treatment after he was injured in a bomb attack, raising hopes among the opposition that a transition would begin. Saleh returned to the country unexpectedly four months later, however, adding to the uncertainty and confusion about Yemen&#;s political future. In November Saleh signed an internationally mediated agreement calling for a phased transfer of power to the vice president, Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi. In accordance with the agreement, Hadi took over governing responsibility immediately and formally assumed the presidency after standing as the sole candidate in a presidential election in February . Unable to improve conditions or maintain stability, however, Hadi&#;s government faced armed confrontation and rebellion that in devolved into a civil war.
Mass protests demanding political and economic reforms erupted in Bahrain in mid-February , led by Bahraini human rights activists and members of Bahrain&#;s marginalized Shiʿi majority. Protests were violently suppressed by Bahraini security forces, aided by a Gulf Cooperation Council security force (composed of about 1,000 soldiers from Saudi Arabia and 500 police officers from the United Arab Emirates) that entered the country in March. By the end of the month, the mass protest movement had been stifled. In the aftermath of the protests, dozens of accused protest leaders were convicted of antigovernment activity and imprisoned, hundreds of Shiʿi workers suspected of supporting the protests were fired, and dozens of Shiʿi mosques were demolished by the government. In November an independent investigation into the uprising, commissioned by the Bahraini government, concluded that the government had used excessive force and torture against protesters. The government carried out some of the commission&#;s recommendations for reform but clamped down further on opposition groups in the years that followed.
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Benghazi, Libya: protests inProtesters at a rally in Benghazi in March carrying the Libyan flag that was used from to . The flag was adopted by the rebels in .
In Libya protests against the regime of Muammar al-Qaddafi in mid-February quickly escalated into an armed revolt. When the rebel forces appeared to be on the verge of defeat in March, an international coalition led by NATO launched a campaign of air strikes targeting Qaddafi&#;s forces. Although NATO intervention ultimately shifted the military balance in favour of the rebel forces, Qaddafi was able to cling to power in the capital, Tripoli, for several more months. He was forced from power in August after rebel forces took control of Tripoli. After evading capture for several weeks, Qaddafi was killed in Sirte in October as rebel forces took control of the city. A Transitional National Council, set up by rebel forces and recognized internationally, took power, but its struggle to exert authority over the country precipitated the outbreak of civil war in .
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SubscribeIn Syria protests calling for the resignation of Pres. Bashar al-Assad broke out in southern Syria in mid-March and spread through the country. The Assad regime responded with a brutal crackdown against protesters, drawing condemnation from international leaders and human rights groups. A leadership council for the Syrian opposition formed in Istanbul in August, and opposition militias began to launch attacks on government forces. In spite of the upheaval, Assad&#;s hold on power appeared strong, as he was able to retain the support of critical military units composed largely of members of Syria&#;s ʿAlawite minority, to which Assad also belonged. Meanwhile, divisions in the international community made it unlikely that international military intervention, which had proved decisive in Libya, would be possible in Syria. Russia and China vetoed UN Security Council resolutions meant to pressure the Assad regime in October and February and vowed to oppose any measure that would lead to foreign intervention in Syria or Assad&#;s removal from power. The arrival of a delegation of peace monitors from the Arab League in December did little to reduce violence. The escalation of violence, fed by funding and arms from several rival countries interested in the outcome of the situation, culminated in a devastating civil war and a massive refugee crisis affecting millions.
The effects of the Arab Spring movement were felt elsewhere throughout the Middle East and North Africa as many of the countries in the region experienced at least minor pro-democracy protests. In Algeria, Jordan, Morocco, and Oman, rulers offered a variety of concessions, ranging from the dismissal of unpopular officials to constitutional changes, in order to head off the spread of protest movements in their countries.
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